Writers write for various purposes, and therefore don't always use the same style. The style of writing is determined by the purpose. You must remember the audience you are writing for. Writing an email to a friend is very different to writing an essay. You cannot write an academic essay using the same tone/ language that you would when writing to a friend.
The purpose of academic writing is to show what you have learned, and what conclusions you have reached, from your research into a topic. Ideas expressed in academic essays have to be expressed in a scholarly tone, and supported by referring to facts or conclusions already published by writers in academically respected forums.
For more detailed information, check the "Writing Centre" link to the right (handout numbers 3 and 4).
2. Avoid using personal language
As you know, the tone of an academic essay (that is, the style of language used) shouldn't be like that of a conversation. Therefore, it is usual to avoid the use of personal pronouns (I, we, us etc) as much as possible. The writer is supposed to make an objective presentation of his/her idea. In other words, the writer should rely on logical argument, plus evidence borrowed from other published work, to make the reader accept the point of view presented in the essay.
Don't use expressions like "I think..." or "In my opinion...", and never write questions addressed directly to the reader ("What do you think of...?", "Do you know...?"). For practice avoiding the use of personal pronouns, go to the link on the right titled "Avoiding personal language".
The following website has similar information as well.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/arts/sociology/2.3.1.xml
Don't use expressions like "I think..." or "In my opinion...", and never write questions addressed directly to the reader ("What do you think of...?", "Do you know...?"). For practice avoiding the use of personal pronouns, go to the link on the right titled "Avoiding personal language".
The following website has similar information as well.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/arts/sociology/2.3.1.xml
3.Choosing a topic
Before you can even think about writing your research essay, you're going to have to do a lot of reading. Therefore you should choose a topic that interests you. Take some time over this, and choose carefully.
It can sometimes be difficult to decide what you want to research. Try thinking about questions such as:
What subject did you like best at high school?
What do you study in university, and why?
What websites do you visit most often?
Trying to answer questions about a topic you're interested in can also help focus your thoughts. If you have no idea for a topic to research, you might find it useful to glance through the Idea Generator (link on the right), particularly Arts & Humanities or Social Sciences, to get you started on something.
It can sometimes be difficult to decide what you want to research. Try thinking about questions such as:
What subject did you like best at high school?
What do you study in university, and why?
What websites do you visit most often?
Trying to answer questions about a topic you're interested in can also help focus your thoughts. If you have no idea for a topic to research, you might find it useful to glance through the Idea Generator (link on the right), particularly Arts & Humanities or Social Sciences, to get you started on something.
4. Narrowing your topic
Once you've chosen a topic, you'll probably need to narrow it down. For example, maybe you're interested in Ancient Egypt. That's a very broad topic, so you'll need to narrow your focus onto a particular subject within the topic, the pyramids, for instance. Techniques such as brainstorming or freewriting are often used to give you ideas.
At this point you need a research question. What is it about the pyramids that you want to research? Research questions generally begin with "How..." or "Why...". How were the pyramids built? Why were they built?
Other examples could be:
Why did a particular event happen the way it did, and not another way?
Why did Obama win the last election?
Why did the Soviet Union collapse?
How have race relations changed in the US since the 1960s?
In other words, good researchers (in social sciences) usually investigate developments in society which may seem somehow surprising (How question), or the causes of an event or trend (Why question).
At this point you need a research question. What is it about the pyramids that you want to research? Research questions generally begin with "How..." or "Why...". How were the pyramids built? Why were they built?
Other examples could be:
Why did a particular event happen the way it did, and not another way?
Why did Obama win the last election?
Why did the Soviet Union collapse?
How have race relations changed in the US since the 1960s?
In other words, good researchers (in social sciences) usually investigate developments in society which may seem somehow surprising (How question), or the causes of an event or trend (Why question).
5. Getting an overview
Perhaps you have decided a broad subject area that you are interested in, but are having trouble narrowing your focus to a specific topic area. If so, you should take the basic step of identifying key words connected to your subject. This can help you get started. Check the link titled "Information Search" (on the right of this page) for an explanation. At the bottom of that page, also read "Tip Sheet 3" (in the green box) about getting an overview.
Doing some background reading to get an overview of your subject gives you a general idea about the subject, and shows you how it can be separated into sub-topics. Then you might see what topic you'd like to focus on. Encyclopedias (for example, Encyclopedia Brittanica) are excellent sources for getting an overview. Wikipedia is okay, although not as reliable. Anyone can write for Wikipedia, and it's known to be less than 100% reliable. Wikipedia can never be used as a direct source for research essays.
Doing some background reading to get an overview of your subject gives you a general idea about the subject, and shows you how it can be separated into sub-topics. Then you might see what topic you'd like to focus on. Encyclopedias (for example, Encyclopedia Brittanica) are excellent sources for getting an overview. Wikipedia is okay, although not as reliable. Anyone can write for Wikipedia, and it's known to be less than 100% reliable. Wikipedia can never be used as a direct source for research essays.
6. Research question
After you have done some background reading and narrowed your focus, you should write your research question. As you know, it should probably begin with “Why” or “How”. The research question should be what you want to learn about the topic. The purpose of writing it now is simply to keep your mind focused while you do your research. It will ensure that you read and take notes only on information necessary for your essay. Later, it will also be useful when you write your thesis statement.
7. Finding sources
You should know by now that sources are the places where you get information about your topic, such as books, magazines, journals, Internet articles, and so on. As I wrote earlier, information found in Wikipedia is not totally reliable, so don't use it except to get a general overview of your topic. Any website with a ".com" address is a commercial site (it's a business), so researchers don't use such sites either as the information can't be trusted to be objective. Web addresses ending in ".edu" or ".gov" are considered to be reliable however, as they belong to universities or governments. ".org" may be fine too, depending on the organization and the topic you're researching.
Google Scholar is a good source of academic articles. There are other search engines besides Google though, and they will provide different results (for example, try http://www.altavista.com). Metacrawlers, which search many search engines at once, can be useful too(http://www.metacrawler.com). Separating key words in your search with OR, AND, or NOT (you must use capital letters) can help you find the kind of information you're looking for. This is called boolean searching. If you interested in learning how it works, read the explanation at http://www.internettutorials.net/boolean.asp
This should be enough information to help you find material on the Internet. If you're interested in a more in-depth (Power Point) explanation, click on the Internet Searches link to the right, and then the blue "Wading Through the Web" link.
Google Scholar is a good source of academic articles. There are other search engines besides Google though, and they will provide different results (for example, try http://www.altavista.com). Metacrawlers, which search many search engines at once, can be useful too(http://www.metacrawler.com). Separating key words in your search with OR, AND, or NOT (you must use capital letters) can help you find the kind of information you're looking for. This is called boolean searching. If you interested in learning how it works, read the explanation at http://www.internettutorials.net/boolean.asp
This should be enough information to help you find material on the Internet. If you're interested in a more in-depth (Power Point) explanation, click on the Internet Searches link to the right, and then the blue "Wading Through the Web" link.
8. Taking notes
Once you have found some sources, it is time to start taking notes. You should not be writing onto a Word document at this stage. There is still a need for pen and paper in the 21st century!
Unless you have some magical powers, you will not find information in the order that you will eventually write it in your essay. Some of the information that might appear useful at first might not be included in your essay after all. It is too early to know exactly what facts you will use. Your research question may change slightly over the next few weeks.
Therefore, you have to get organized! Many researchers recommend using index cards, because it is easy to shuffle and rearrange them when you start to put your first draft together. However, a notebook is probably just as good. The point is, whenever you take notes from a source be sure to start by writing the title, author, page number etc (see the "Taking notes" link to the right). If you're using many websites, bookmark them and create a folder for them. This will be useful when you cite your sources later.
It is also a very good idea to establish sub-topics within your research question, so that you can find all the notes you've taken related to particular things easily (once you start to write your first draft). Be sure to read "Tip Sheet 11: Creating Subtopic Headings" via the "Taking notes" link.
Unless you have some magical powers, you will not find information in the order that you will eventually write it in your essay. Some of the information that might appear useful at first might not be included in your essay after all. It is too early to know exactly what facts you will use. Your research question may change slightly over the next few weeks.
Therefore, you have to get organized! Many researchers recommend using index cards, because it is easy to shuffle and rearrange them when you start to put your first draft together. However, a notebook is probably just as good. The point is, whenever you take notes from a source be sure to start by writing the title, author, page number etc (see the "Taking notes" link to the right). If you're using many websites, bookmark them and create a folder for them. This will be useful when you cite your sources later.
It is also a very good idea to establish sub-topics within your research question, so that you can find all the notes you've taken related to particular things easily (once you start to write your first draft). Be sure to read "Tip Sheet 11: Creating Subtopic Headings" via the "Taking notes" link.
9. Citing sources: Quotations
When you find words that perfectly express an idea that is important for your essay, especially if they support/validate the argument you are trying to make (your main opinion about the topic), it is normal to quote them. That means putting quotation marks ( these things " ") at the beginning and end of the sentence/sentences you are copying.
Most of the time, writers include the name of the source's author and the year published at the beginning of the sentence, and the page number at the end. Note the following example. According to Smith (2005), "border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (p.47). Other ways of introducing the author's name include the following:
Smith (2005) has pointed out that...
As Smith (2005) says,...
Smith (2005) has made it clear that...
Smith (2005) explains/states/suggests/writes that...
If you don't include the author's name at the beginning, you might write it like this: "Border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (Smith, 2005, p.47).
If the quote is longer than two sentences, it should be indented. Generally speaking, a single quote should not take more than 4 or 5 lines of your paper, and you shouldn't quote too often. I would suggest a maximum of 6 for a small essay such as you are writing.
Most of the time, writers include the name of the source's author and the year published at the beginning of the sentence, and the page number at the end. Note the following example. According to Smith (2005), "border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (p.47). Other ways of introducing the author's name include the following:
Smith (2005) has pointed out that...
As Smith (2005) says,...
Smith (2005) has made it clear that...
Smith (2005) explains/states/suggests/writes that...
If you don't include the author's name at the beginning, you might write it like this: "Border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (Smith, 2005, p.47).
If the quote is longer than two sentences, it should be indented. Generally speaking, a single quote should not take more than 4 or 5 lines of your paper, and you shouldn't quote too often. I would suggest a maximum of 6 for a small essay such as you are writing.
10. Plagiarism
The reason you must cite your sources is that using other writer's words without crediting them is academic dishonesty (called plagiarism). Plagiarism is the same as stealing. In the West, universities sometimes expel students who have plagiarised their essays. The SIS policy is milder. You will simply be given "zero" for the essay.
When you don't use direct quotes, you have to change the writer's words into your own words. It is very simple for English teachers to tell when a student has used a professional author's words. The standard of English is so clearly different. If a teacher is in any doubt, he/she can use websites such as turnitin.com to put suspicious sentences through a check of a huge database of published work.
When you don't use direct quotes, you have to change the writer's words into your own words. It is very simple for English teachers to tell when a student has used a professional author's words. The standard of English is so clearly different. If a teacher is in any doubt, he/she can use websites such as turnitin.com to put suspicious sentences through a check of a huge database of published work.
11. Citing sources: Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing is another way you can use other writers' ideas in your essays. The basic skill is to repeat what the writer has said, but express the idea in different words. You must still cite the authour, but page numbers (and of course quotation marks) are not necessary. In the post about quotations (below), I gave this example:
According to Smith (2005) "border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (p.47).
A paraphrase of this could, for example, be something like:
The dog which has the sharpest mind is the border collie (Smith, 2005).
For good general advice about paraphrasing and suggested methods for doing it well, you can read the link to the right "Paraphrasing 1" (pages 3 & 4). For practice exercises, click "Paraphrasing 2". On the left side, you'll see "Paraphrasing Exercise". It has 5 short pieces for you to try rewriting in your own words (in your notebook, or loose leaf paper). When you've finished, you can compare what you wrote with the "Paraphrasing Exercise Answers". Don't be too disappointed if what you wrote isn't as good as the answers. It's just an exercise to give you the general idea of how to do it.
According to Smith (2005) "border collies are the most intelligent dogs" (p.47).
A paraphrase of this could, for example, be something like:
The dog which has the sharpest mind is the border collie (Smith, 2005).
For good general advice about paraphrasing and suggested methods for doing it well, you can read the link to the right "Paraphrasing 1" (pages 3 & 4). For practice exercises, click "Paraphrasing 2". On the left side, you'll see "Paraphrasing Exercise". It has 5 short pieces for you to try rewriting in your own words (in your notebook, or loose leaf paper). When you've finished, you can compare what you wrote with the "Paraphrasing Exercise Answers". Don't be too disappointed if what you wrote isn't as good as the answers. It's just an exercise to give you the general idea of how to do it.
12. Making an outline
After you have done enough reading on your subject, you should be able to decide what you will write about it. This is when you can start thinking about your thesis statement.
The thesis statement is the main thing that you want to say in your essay. It clearly presents the point of view that you have reached after doing some research about your topic. After you've decided that, you can complete your essay outine.
Go to the "Making an outline" link (to the right) and click on "thesis statement" in the second blue box for further explanation.
The thesis statement is the main thing that you want to say in your essay. It clearly presents the point of view that you have reached after doing some research about your topic. After you've decided that, you can complete your essay outine.
Go to the "Making an outline" link (to the right) and click on "thesis statement" in the second blue box for further explanation.
13. Summary writing
One of the main writing skills you will need to use is summary writing. A summary is a statement of the most important information in a text in your own words. After you have read a passage that you think is relevant to your topic, and decided that you want to use the information, you should stop looking at the text for a moment. If you wait for a minute or so before trying to rewrite the main ideas of a passage, there is much less chance of you using words that are too similar to the original (i.e. plagiarizing it).
You should use many fewer words in a summary than are found in the original source (maybe 15-20%) because, generally speaking, the aim is to combine several ideas into one or two sentences. There is no need to cite the author when you write a summary. For more in depth discussion about summary writing, and some useful practice exercises, check the "Summary writing" link (to the right).
You should use many fewer words in a summary than are found in the original source (maybe 15-20%) because, generally speaking, the aim is to combine several ideas into one or two sentences. There is no need to cite the author when you write a summary. For more in depth discussion about summary writing, and some useful practice exercises, check the "Summary writing" link (to the right).
14. Style
As you are at the point of putting together your outline now, it's a good time to remind you of the need to follow native English speaker academic writing style.
Firstly, remember that you have to get to the point in your introduction. After a brief background/lead in from the beginning, you have to state your main idea in the thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
After that, each body paragraph (beginning with a topic sentence - the main idea of that paragraph) should progressively tell the story you want to tell in a logical sequence of ideas. That is, you put together a reasoned explanation, step by step, to show that your thesis statemnt was right (or at least possibly right).
If you'd like to see an article about English vs Japanese (and other) writing styles, read the link to the right ("Style").
Firstly, remember that you have to get to the point in your introduction. After a brief background/lead in from the beginning, you have to state your main idea in the thesis statement at the end of the introduction.
After that, each body paragraph (beginning with a topic sentence - the main idea of that paragraph) should progressively tell the story you want to tell in a logical sequence of ideas. That is, you put together a reasoned explanation, step by step, to show that your thesis statemnt was right (or at least possibly right).
If you'd like to see an article about English vs Japanese (and other) writing styles, read the link to the right ("Style").
15. Body paragraphs (reminder)
Here is a quick reminder about body paragraphs. You start with
1): a topic sentence, which is the main idea of that paragraph. That's followed by
2): supporting evidence, or information which explains why you said what you did in the topic sentence. After that,
3): give more specific details and examples of your supporting evidence.
(Very) Simple example (you would need much more supporting evidence):
Sumo wrestlers have different lives compared to the average person (1). They have to eat a lot and gain weight to help them win (2). For example, meat is a large part of their diet (3).
You will probably find it easier to write a good introduction if you do it last. I suggest you write the body paragraphs first.
1): a topic sentence, which is the main idea of that paragraph. That's followed by
2): supporting evidence, or information which explains why you said what you did in the topic sentence. After that,
3): give more specific details and examples of your supporting evidence.
(Very) Simple example (you would need much more supporting evidence):
Sumo wrestlers have different lives compared to the average person (1). They have to eat a lot and gain weight to help them win (2). For example, meat is a large part of their diet (3).
You will probably find it easier to write a good introduction if you do it last. I suggest you write the body paragraphs first.
16. Avoid using personal language
As you know, the tone of an academic essay (that is, the style of language used) shouldn't be like that of a conversation. Therefore, it is usual to avoid the use of personal pronouns (I, we, us etc) as much as possible. The writer is supposed to make an objective presentation of his/her idea. In other words, the writer should rely on logical argument, plus evidence borrowed from other published work, to make the reader accept the point of view presented in the essay.
Don't use expressions like "I think..." or "In my opinion...", and never write questions addressed directly to the reader ("What do you think of...?", "Do you know...?"). For practice avoiding the use of personal pronouns, go to the link on the right titled "Avoiding personal language".
The following website has similar information as well.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/arts/sociology/2.3.1.xml
Don't use expressions like "I think..." or "In my opinion...", and never write questions addressed directly to the reader ("What do you think of...?", "Do you know...?"). For practice avoiding the use of personal pronouns, go to the link on the right titled "Avoiding personal language".
The following website has similar information as well.
http://www.monash.edu.au/lls/llonline/writing/arts/sociology/2.3.1.xml
17. Introduction
Remember to start your essay with a "hook"; that is, something interesting to grab the reader's attention and make them want to keep reading.
You could start with:
1) a provocative question (In one hundred years, will there be any Japanese left?)
2) a surprising fact about your topic (In 2005 there were more deaths than births in Japan (Ide, 2006).
3) An interesting quotation related to your topic
4) A well known proverb or saying related to your topic
5) Tell a brief intersting story related to your topic
After that you should give some background to the topic. First present it in a general way, then gradually narrow it down to what you really want to say (your thesis statement).
You could start with:
1) a provocative question (In one hundred years, will there be any Japanese left?)
2) a surprising fact about your topic (In 2005 there were more deaths than births in Japan (Ide, 2006).
3) An interesting quotation related to your topic
4) A well known proverb or saying related to your topic
5) Tell a brief intersting story related to your topic
After that you should give some background to the topic. First present it in a general way, then gradually narrow it down to what you really want to say (your thesis statement).
18. References
At the end of your essay, you need to write a complete list of references to the sources you used. If you cited a source, you have to give the details of the writer's name, year of publication, title, publisher etc.
There are a couple of well known styles, but we (at SIS) recommend APA style. Go to the Purdue Owl link to the right, and click on "APA Formatting and Style Guide" near the top right of the page. This site shows you all the possible citation types you need to know.
There are a couple of well known styles, but we (at SIS) recommend APA style. Go to the Purdue Owl link to the right, and click on "APA Formatting and Style Guide" near the top right of the page. This site shows you all the possible citation types you need to know.
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